##############################################################################
#
# Copyright (c) 2003 Zope Foundation and Contributors.
# All Rights Reserved.
#
# This software is subject to the provisions of the Zope Public License,
# Version 2.1 (ZPL).  A copy of the ZPL should accompany this distribution.
# THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND ANY AND ALL EXPRESS OR IMPLIED
# WARRANTIES ARE DISCLAIMED, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED
# WARRANTIES OF TITLE, MERCHANTABILITY, AGAINST INFRINGEMENT, AND FITNESS
# FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
#
##############################################################################
"""Disk-based client cache for ZEO.

ClientCache exposes an API used by the ZEO client storage.  FileCache stores
objects on disk using a 2-tuple of oid and tid as key.

ClientCache's API is similar to a storage API, with methods like load(),
store(), and invalidate().  It manages in-memory data structures that allow
it to map this richer API onto the simple key-based API of the lower-level
FileCache.
"""

from struct import pack, unpack

import BTrees.LLBTree
import BTrees.LOBTree
import logging
import os
import tempfile
import threading
import time

import ZODB.fsIndex
import zc.lockfile
from ZODB.utils import p64, u64, z64

logger = logging.getLogger("ZEO.cache")

# A disk-based cache for ZEO clients.
#
# This class provides an interface to a persistent, disk-based cache
# used by ZEO clients to store copies of database records from the
# server.
#
# The details of the constructor as unspecified at this point.
#
# Each entry in the cache is valid for a particular range of transaction
# ids.  The lower bound is the transaction that wrote the data.  The
# upper bound is the next transaction that wrote a revision of the
# object.  If the data is current, the upper bound is stored as None;
# the data is considered current until an invalidate() call is made.
#
# It is an error to call store() twice with the same object without an
# intervening invalidate() to set the upper bound on the first cache
# entry.  Perhaps it will be necessary to have a call the removes
# something from the cache outright, without keeping a non-current
# entry.

# Cache verification
#
# When the client is connected to the server, it receives
# invalidations every time an object is modified.  When the client is
# disconnected then reconnects, it must perform cache verification to make
# sure its cached data is synchronized with the storage's current state.
#
# quick verification
# full verification
#


# FileCache stores a cache in a single on-disk file.
#
# On-disk cache structure.
#
# The file begins with a 12-byte header.  The first four bytes are the
# file's magic number - ZEC3 - indicating zeo cache version 4.  The
# next eight bytes are the last transaction id.

magic = "ZEC3"
ZEC_HEADER_SIZE = 12

# Maximum block size. Note that while we are doing a store, we may
# need to write a free block that is almost twice as big.  If we die
# in the middle of a store, then we need to split the large free records
# while opening.
max_block_size = (1<<31) - 1


# After the header, the file contains a contiguous sequence of blocks.  All
# blocks begin with a one-byte status indicator:
#
# 'a'
#       Allocated.  The block holds an object; the next 4 bytes are >I
#       format total block size.
#
# 'f'
#       Free.  The block is free; the next 4 bytes are >I format total
#       block size.
#
# '1', '2', '3', '4'
#       The block is free, and consists of 1, 2, 3 or 4 bytes total.
#
# "Total" includes the status byte, and size bytes.  There are no
# empty (size 0) blocks.


# Allocated blocks have more structure:
#
#     1 byte allocation status ('a').
#     4 bytes block size, >I format.
#     8 byte oid
#     8 byte start_tid
#     8 byte end_tid
#     2 byte version length must be 0
#     4 byte data size
#     data
#     8 byte redundant oid for error detection.
allocated_record_overhead = 43

# The cache's currentofs goes around the file, circularly, forever.
# It's always the starting offset of some block.
#
# When a new object is added to the cache, it's stored beginning at
# currentofs, and currentofs moves just beyond it.  As many contiguous
# blocks needed to make enough room for the new object are evicted,
# starting at currentofs.  Exception:  if currentofs is close enough
# to the end of the file that the new object can't fit in one
# contiguous chunk, currentofs is reset to ZEC_HEADER_SIZE first.

class locked(object):

    def __init__(self, func):
        self.func = func

    def __get__(self, inst, class_):
        if inst is None:
            return self
        def call(*args, **kw):
            inst._lock.acquire()
            try:
                return self.func(inst, *args, **kw)
            finally:
                inst._lock.release()
        return call

class ClientCache(object):
    """A simple in-memory cache."""

    # The default size of 200MB makes a lot more sense than the traditional
    # default of 20MB.  The default here is misleading, though, since
    # ClientStorage is the only user of ClientCache, and it always passes an
    # explicit size of its own choosing.
    def __init__(self, path=None, size=200*1024**2):

        # - `path`:  filepath for the cache file, or None (in which case
        #   a temp file will be created)
        self.path = path

        # - `maxsize`:  total size of the cache file
        #               We set to the minimum size of less than the minimum.
        size = max(size, ZEC_HEADER_SIZE)
        self.maxsize = size

        # The number of records in the cache.
        self._len = 0

        # {oid -> pos}
        self.current = ZODB.fsIndex.fsIndex()

        # {oid -> {tid->pos}}
        # Note that caches in the wild seem to have very little non-current
        # data, so this would seem to have little impact on memory consumption.
        # I wonder if we even need to store non-current data in the cache.
        self.noncurrent = BTrees.LOBTree.LOBTree()

        # tid for the most recent transaction we know about.  This is also
        # stored near the start of the file.
        self.tid = None

        # Always the offset into the file of the start of a block.
        # New and relocated objects are always written starting at
        # currentofs.
        self.currentofs = ZEC_HEADER_SIZE

        # self.f is the open file object.
        # When we're not reusing an existing file, self.f is left None
        # here -- the scan() method must be called then to open the file
        # (and it sets self.f).

        fsize = ZEC_HEADER_SIZE
        if path:
            self._lock_file = zc.lockfile.LockFile(path + '.lock')
            if not os.path.exists(path):
                # Create a small empty file.  We'll make it bigger in _initfile.
                self.f = open(path, 'wb+')
                self.f.write(magic+z64)
                logger.info("created persistent cache file %r", path)
            else:
                fsize = os.path.getsize(self.path)
                self.f = open(path, 'rb+')
                logger.info("reusing persistent cache file %r", path)
        else:
            # Create a small empty file.  We'll make it bigger in _initfile.
            self.f = tempfile.TemporaryFile()
            self.f.write(magic+z64)
            logger.info("created temporary cache file %r", self.f.name)

        try:
            self._initfile(fsize)
        except:
            self.f.close()
            if not path:
                raise # unrecoverable temp file error :(
            badpath = path+'.bad'
            if os.path.exists(badpath):
                logger.critical(
                    'Removing bad cache file: %r (prev bad exists).',
                    path, exc_info=1)
                os.remove(path)
            else:
                logger.critical('Moving bad cache file to %r.',
                                badpath, exc_info=1)
                os.rename(path, badpath)
            self.f = open(path, 'wb+')
            self.f.write(magic+z64)
            self._initfile(ZEC_HEADER_SIZE)

        # Statistics:  _n_adds, _n_added_bytes,
        #              _n_evicts, _n_evicted_bytes,
        #              _n_accesses
        self.clearStats()

        self._setup_trace(path)

        self._lock = threading.RLock()

    # Backward compatibility. Client code used to have to use the fc
    # attr to get to the file cache to get cache stats.
    @property
    def fc(self):
        return self

    def clear(self):
        self.f.seek(ZEC_HEADER_SIZE)
        self.f.truncate()
        self._initfile(ZEC_HEADER_SIZE)

    ##
    # Scan the current contents of the cache file, calling `install`
    # for each object found in the cache.  This method should only
    # be called once to initialize the cache from disk.
    def _initfile(self, fsize):
        maxsize = self.maxsize
        f = self.f
        read = f.read
        seek = f.seek
        write = f.write
        seek(0)
        if read(4) != magic:
            seek(0)
            raise ValueError("unexpected magic number: %r" % read(4))
        self.tid = read(8)
        if len(self.tid) != 8:
            raise ValueError("cache file too small -- no tid at start")

        # Populate .filemap and .key2entry to reflect what's currently in the
        # file, and tell our parent about it too (via the `install` callback).
        # Remember the location of the largest free block.  That seems a
        # decent place to start currentofs.

        self.current = ZODB.fsIndex.fsIndex()
        self.noncurrent = BTrees.LOBTree.LOBTree()
        l = 0
        last = ofs = ZEC_HEADER_SIZE
        first_free_offset = 0
        current = self.current
        status = ' '
        while ofs < fsize:
            seek(ofs)
            status = read(1)
            if status == 'a':
                size, oid, start_tid, end_tid, lver = unpack(
                    ">I8s8s8sH", read(30))
                if ofs+size <= maxsize:
                    if end_tid == z64:
                        assert oid not in current, (ofs, f.tell())
                        current[oid] = ofs
                    else:
                        assert start_tid < end_tid, (ofs, f.tell())
                        self._set_noncurrent(oid, start_tid, ofs)
                    assert lver == 0, "Versions aren't supported"
                    l += 1
            else:
                # free block
                if first_free_offset == 0:
                    first_free_offset = ofs
                if status == 'f':
                    size, = unpack(">I", read(4))
                    if size > max_block_size:
                        # Oops, we either have an old cache, or a we
                        # crashed while storing. Split this block into two.
                        assert size <= max_block_size*2
                        seek(ofs+max_block_size)
                        write('f'+pack(">I", size-max_block_size))
                        seek(ofs)
                        write('f'+pack(">I", max_block_size))
                        sync(f)
                elif status in '1234':
                    size = int(status)
                else:
                    raise ValueError("unknown status byte value %s in client "
                                     "cache file" % 0, hex(ord(status)))

            last = ofs
            ofs += size

            if ofs >= maxsize:
                # Oops, the file was bigger before.
                if ofs > maxsize:
                    # The last record is too big. Replace it with a smaller
                    # free record
                    size = maxsize-last
                    seek(last)
                    if size > 4:
                        write('f'+pack(">I", size))
                    else:
                        write("012345"[size])
                    sync(f)
                    ofs = maxsize
                break

        if fsize < maxsize:
            assert ofs==fsize
            # Make sure the OS really saves enough bytes for the file.
            seek(self.maxsize - 1)
            write('x')

            # add as many free blocks as are needed to fill the space
            seek(ofs)
            nfree = maxsize - ZEC_HEADER_SIZE
            for i in range(0, nfree, max_block_size):
                block_size = min(max_block_size, nfree-i)
                write('f' + pack(">I", block_size))
                seek(block_size-5, 1)
            sync(self.f)

            # There is always data to read and
            assert last and status in ' f1234'
            first_free_offset = last
        else:
            assert ofs==maxsize
            if maxsize < fsize:
                seek(maxsize)
                f.truncate()

        # We use the first_free_offset because it is most likelyt the
        # place where we last wrote.
        self.currentofs = first_free_offset or ZEC_HEADER_SIZE
        self._len = l

    def _set_noncurrent(self, oid, tid, ofs):
        noncurrent_for_oid = self.noncurrent.get(u64(oid))
        if noncurrent_for_oid is None:
            noncurrent_for_oid = BTrees.LLBTree.LLBucket()
            self.noncurrent[u64(oid)] = noncurrent_for_oid
        noncurrent_for_oid[u64(tid)] = ofs

    def _del_noncurrent(self, oid, tid):
        try:
            noncurrent_for_oid = self.noncurrent[u64(oid)]
            del noncurrent_for_oid[u64(tid)]
            if not noncurrent_for_oid:
                del self.noncurrent[u64(oid)]
        except KeyError:
            logger.error("Couldn't find non-current %r", (oid, tid))


    def clearStats(self):
        self._n_adds = self._n_added_bytes = 0
        self._n_evicts = self._n_evicted_bytes = 0
        self._n_accesses = 0

    def getStats(self):
        return (self._n_adds, self._n_added_bytes,
                self._n_evicts, self._n_evicted_bytes,
                self._n_accesses
               )

    ##
    # The number of objects currently in the cache.
    def __len__(self):
        return self._len

    ##
    # Close the underlying file.  No methods accessing the cache should be
    # used after this.
    def close(self):
        if self.f:
            sync(self.f)
            self.f.close()
            self.f = None
        if hasattr(self,'_lock_file'):
            self._lock_file.close()

    ##
    # Evict objects as necessary to free up at least nbytes bytes,
    # starting at currentofs.  If currentofs is closer than nbytes to
    # the end of the file, currentofs is reset to ZEC_HEADER_SIZE first.
    # The number of bytes actually freed may be (and probably will be)
    # greater than nbytes, and is _makeroom's return value.  The file is not
    # altered by _makeroom.  filemap and key2entry are updated to reflect the
    # evictions, and it's the caller's responsibility both to fiddle
    # the file, and to update filemap, to account for all the space
    # freed (starting at currentofs when _makeroom returns, and
    # spanning the number of bytes retured by _makeroom).
    def _makeroom(self, nbytes):
        assert 0 < nbytes <= self.maxsize - ZEC_HEADER_SIZE, (
            nbytes, self.maxsize)
        if self.currentofs + nbytes > self.maxsize:
            self.currentofs = ZEC_HEADER_SIZE
        ofs = self.currentofs
        seek = self.f.seek
        read = self.f.read
        current = self.current
        while nbytes > 0:
            seek(ofs)
            status = read(1)
            if status == 'a':
                size, oid, start_tid, end_tid = unpack(">I8s8s8s", read(28))
                self._n_evicts += 1
                self._n_evicted_bytes += size
                if end_tid == z64:
                    del current[oid]
                else:
                    self._del_noncurrent(oid, start_tid)
                self._len -= 1
            else:
                if status == 'f':
                    size = unpack(">I", read(4))[0]
                else:
                    assert status in '1234'
                    size = int(status)
            ofs += size
            nbytes -= size
        return ofs - self.currentofs

    ##
    # Update our idea of the most recent tid.  This is stored in the
    # instance, and also written out near the start of the cache file.  The
    # new tid must be strictly greater than our current idea of the most
    # recent tid.
    @locked
    def setLastTid(self, tid):
        if (not tid) or (tid == z64):
            return
        if (self.tid is not None) and (tid <= self.tid) and self:
            if tid == self.tid:
                return                  # Be a little forgiving
            raise ValueError("new last tid (%s) must be greater than "
                             "previous one (%s)"
                             % (u64(tid), u64(self.tid)))
        assert isinstance(tid, str) and len(tid) == 8, tid
        self.tid = tid
        self.f.seek(len(magic))
        self.f.write(tid)
        self.f.flush()

    ##
    # Return the last transaction seen by the cache.
    # @return a transaction id
    # @defreturn string, or None if no transaction is yet known
    def getLastTid(self):
        tid = self.tid
        if tid == z64:
            return None
        else:
            return tid

    ##
    # Return the current data record for oid.
    # @param oid object id
    # @return (data record, serial number, tid), or None if the object is not
    #         in the cache
    # @defreturn 3-tuple: (string, string, string)

    @locked
    def load(self, oid):
        ofs = self.current.get(oid)
        if ofs is None:
            self._trace(0x20, oid)
            return None
        self.f.seek(ofs)
        read = self.f.read
        status = read(1)
        assert status == 'a', (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
        size, saved_oid, tid, end_tid, lver, ldata = unpack(
            ">I8s8s8sHI", read(34))
        assert saved_oid == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, saved_oid)
        assert lver == 0, "Versions aren't supported"

        data = read(ldata)
        assert len(data) == ldata, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, len(data), ldata)

        # WARNING: The following assert changes the file position.
        # We must not depend on ths below or we'll fail in optimized mode.
        assert read(8) == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)

        self._n_accesses += 1
        self._trace(0x22, oid, tid, end_tid, ldata)
        return data, tid

    ##
    # Return a non-current revision of oid that was current before tid.
    # @param oid object id
    # @param tid id of transaction that wrote next revision of oid
    # @return data record, serial number, start tid, and end tid
    # @defreturn 4-tuple: (string, string, string, string)

    @locked
    def loadBefore(self, oid, before_tid):
        noncurrent_for_oid = self.noncurrent.get(u64(oid))
        if noncurrent_for_oid is None:
            self._trace(0x24, oid, "", before_tid)
            return None

        items = noncurrent_for_oid.items(None, u64(before_tid)-1)
        if not items:
            self._trace(0x24, oid, "", before_tid)
            return None
        tid, ofs = items[-1]

        self.f.seek(ofs)
        read = self.f.read
        status = read(1)
        assert status == 'a', (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, before_tid)
        size, saved_oid, saved_tid, end_tid, lver, ldata = unpack(
            ">I8s8s8sHI", read(34))
        assert saved_oid == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, saved_oid)
        assert saved_tid == p64(tid), (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, saved_tid, tid)
        assert end_tid != z64, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
        assert lver == 0, "Versions aren't supported"
        data = read(ldata)
        assert len(data) == ldata, (ofs, self.f.tell())

        # WARNING: The following assert changes the file position.
        # We must not depend on ths below or we'll fail in optimized mode.
        assert read(8) == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)

        if end_tid < before_tid:
            self._trace(0x24, oid, "", before_tid)
            return None

        self._n_accesses += 1
        self._trace(0x26, oid, "", saved_tid)
        return data, saved_tid, end_tid

    ##
    # Store a new data record in the cache.
    # @param oid object id
    # @param start_tid the id of the transaction that wrote this revision
    # @param end_tid the id of the transaction that created the next
    #                revision of oid.  If end_tid is None, the data is
    #                current.
    # @param data the actual data

    @locked
    def store(self, oid, start_tid, end_tid, data):
        seek = self.f.seek
        if end_tid is None:
            ofs = self.current.get(oid)
            if ofs:
                seek(ofs)
                read = self.f.read
                status = read(1)
                assert status == 'a', (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
                size, saved_oid, saved_tid, end_tid = unpack(
                    ">I8s8s8s", read(28))
                assert saved_oid == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, saved_oid)
                assert end_tid == z64, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
                if saved_tid == start_tid:
                    return
                raise ValueError("already have current data for oid")
        else:
            noncurrent_for_oid = self.noncurrent.get(u64(oid))
            if noncurrent_for_oid and (u64(start_tid) in noncurrent_for_oid):
                return

        size = allocated_record_overhead + len(data)

        # A number of cache simulation experiments all concluded that the
        # 2nd-level ZEO cache got a much higher hit rate if "very large"
        # objects simply weren't cached.  For now, we ignore the request
        # only if the entire cache file is too small to hold the object.
        if size >= min(max_block_size, self.maxsize - ZEC_HEADER_SIZE):
            return

        self._n_adds += 1
        self._n_added_bytes += size
        self._len += 1

        # In the next line, we ask for an extra to make sure we always
        # have a free block after the new alocated block.  This free
        # block acts as a ring pointer, so that on restart, we start
        # where we left off.
        nfreebytes = self._makeroom(size+1)

        assert size <= nfreebytes, (size, nfreebytes)
        excess = nfreebytes - size
        # If there's any excess (which is likely), we need to record a
        # free block following the end of the data record.  That isn't
        # expensive -- it's all a contiguous write.
        if excess == 0:
            extra = ''
        elif excess < 5:
            extra = "01234"[excess]
        else:
            extra = 'f' + pack(">I", excess)

        ofs = self.currentofs
        seek(ofs)
        write = self.f.write

        # Before writing data, we'll write a free block for the space freed.
        # We'll come back with a last atomic write to rewrite the start of the
        # allocated-block header.
        write('f'+pack(">I", nfreebytes))

        # Now write the rest of the allocation block header and object data.
        write(pack(">8s8s8sHI", oid, start_tid, end_tid or z64, 0, len(data)))
        write(data)
        write(oid)
        write(extra)

        # Now, we'll go back and rewrite the beginning of the
        # allocated block header.
        seek(ofs)
        write('a'+pack(">I", size))

        if end_tid:
            self._set_noncurrent(oid, start_tid, ofs)
            self._trace(0x54, oid, start_tid, end_tid, dlen=len(data))
        else:
            self.current[oid] = ofs
            self._trace(0x52, oid, start_tid, dlen=len(data))

        self.currentofs += size

    ##
    # If `tid` is None,
    # forget all knowledge of `oid`.  (`tid` can be None only for
    # invalidations generated by startup cache verification.)  If `tid`
    # isn't None, and we had current
    # data for `oid`, stop believing we have current data, and mark the
    # data we had as being valid only up to `tid`.  In all other cases, do
    # nothing.
    #
    # Paramters:
    #
    # - oid object id
    # - tid the id of the transaction that wrote a new revision of oid,
    #        or None to forget all cached info about oid.

    @locked
    def invalidate(self, oid, tid):
        ofs = self.current.get(oid)
        if ofs is None:
            # 0x10 == invalidate (miss)
            self._trace(0x10, oid, tid)
            return

        self.f.seek(ofs)
        read = self.f.read
        status = read(1)
        assert status == 'a', (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
        size, saved_oid, saved_tid, end_tid = unpack(">I8s8s8s", read(28))
        assert saved_oid == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, saved_oid)
        assert end_tid == z64, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
        del self.current[oid]
        if tid is None:
            self.f.seek(ofs)
            self.f.write('f'+pack(">I", size))
            # 0x1E = invalidate (hit, discarding current or non-current)
            self._trace(0x1E, oid, tid)
            self._len -= 1
        else:
            if tid == saved_tid:
                logger.warning("Ignoring invalidation with same tid as current")
                return
            self.f.seek(ofs+21)
            self.f.write(tid)
            self._set_noncurrent(oid, saved_tid, ofs)
            # 0x1C = invalidate (hit, saving non-current)
            self._trace(0x1C, oid, tid)

    ##
    # Generates (oid, serial) oairs for all objects in the
    # cache.  This generator is used by cache verification.
    def contents(self):
        # May need to materialize list instead of iterating;
        # depends on whether the caller may change the cache.
        seek = self.f.seek
        read = self.f.read
        for oid, ofs in self.current.iteritems():
            self._lock.acquire()
            try:
                seek(ofs)
                status = read(1)
                assert status == 'a', (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
                size, saved_oid, tid, end_tid = unpack(">I8s8s8s", read(28))
                assert saved_oid == oid, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid, saved_oid)
                assert end_tid == z64, (ofs, self.f.tell(), oid)
                result = oid, tid
            finally:
                self._lock.release()

            yield result

    def dump(self):
        from ZODB.utils import oid_repr
        print "cache size", len(self)
        L = list(self.contents())
        L.sort()
        for oid, tid in L:
            print oid_repr(oid), oid_repr(tid)
        print "dll contents"
        L = list(self)
        L.sort(lambda x, y: cmp(x.key, y.key))
        for x in L:
            end_tid = x.end_tid or z64
            print oid_repr(x.key[0]), oid_repr(x.key[1]), oid_repr(end_tid)
        print

    # If `path` isn't None (== we're using a persistent cache file), and
    # envar ZEO_CACHE_TRACE is set to a non-empty value, try to open
    # path+'.trace' as a trace file, and store the file object in
    # self._tracefile.  If not, or we can't write to the trace file, disable
    # tracing by setting self._trace to a dummy function, and set
    # self._tracefile to None.
    def _setup_trace(self, path):
        _tracefile = None
        if path and os.environ.get("ZEO_CACHE_TRACE"):
            tfn = path + ".trace"
            try:
                _tracefile = open(tfn, "ab")
            except IOError, msg:
                logger.warning("cannot write tracefile %r (%s)", tfn, msg)
            else:
                logger.info("opened tracefile %r", tfn)

        if _tracefile is None:
            self._trace = lambda *a, **k: None
            return

        now = time.time
        def _trace(code, oid="", tid=z64, end_tid=z64, dlen=0):
            # The code argument is two hex digits; bits 0 and 7 must be zero.
            # The first hex digit shows the operation, the second the outcome.
            # This method has been carefully tuned to be as fast as possible.
            # Note: when tracing is disabled, this method is hidden by a dummy.
            encoded = (dlen + 255) & 0x7fffff00 | code
            if tid is None:
                tid = z64
            if end_tid is None:
                end_tid = z64
            try:
                _tracefile.write(
                    pack(">iiH8s8s",
                         now(), encoded, len(oid), tid, end_tid) + oid,
                    )
            except:
                print `tid`, `end_tid`
                raise

        self._trace = _trace
        _trace(0x00)

def sync(f):
    f.flush()

if hasattr(os, 'fsync'):
    def sync(f):
        f.flush()
        os.fsync(f.fileno())
